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Hinduism
Sanatana Dharma: Vedas, Upanishads, Gita and many paths
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In one minute
Hinduism, which many followers call Sanatana Dharma, the 'eternal way', is the faith of most people in India and Nepal and of communities around the world. It has no single founder or single holy book; instead it is a family of traditions rooted in the Vedas, the Upanishads, the epics and the teachings of countless saints. Hindus speak of dharma (right living), karma (action and its fruits) and moksha (liberation), and many worship the one divine reality in many forms, such as Vishnu, Shiva and the Goddess. Daily life is shaped by home worship, temple visits, pilgrimages, festivals and family rites, which vary richly from region to region.
In India (Census 2011): 96.63 crore (79.8%)
Origins
As the tradition tells it
In the tradition's own understanding, Sanatana Dharma has no beginning in time: it is the eternal order of truth, renewed in every age. The Vedas are shruti, 'that which was heard', revealed knowledge that the ancient rishis perceived in deep meditation rather than composed, and are regarded by many as apaurusheya, not of human authorship. Later texts such as the epics, the Puranas and the law books are smriti, 'that which is remembered', which explain and apply this eternal wisdom. Tradition also teaches that time moves in great cycles of four yugas, with dharma taught anew by sages and divine incarnations in each age.
As historians describe it
Historians describe Hinduism as growing over several thousand years from many sources, and they debate its earliest origins. Some see possible links to the Indus Valley (Harappan) civilisation, whose mature phase is dated to about 2600 to 1900 BCE, though how much continuity there was remains uncertain. Scholarly estimates place the composition of the Vedic texts at about 1500 to 500 BCE, beginning with the Rigveda, while noting that these dates are debated and that the texts were preserved orally long before being written. The epics, Puranas and the bhakti traditions developed over the following centuries, shaping the forms of worship known today.
Timeline
- c. 2600 to 1900 BCEMature phase of the Indus Valley civilisation; some scholars see possible early links to later Hindu practice, a question still debated.
- c. 1500 to 1000 BCE (scholarly estimate)The hymns of the Rigveda are composed and passed down orally with great precision.
- c. 800 to 500 BCE (scholarly estimate)The early Upanishads explore Brahman, Atman and liberation, closing the Vedic period.
- c. 400 BCE to 400 CEThe Ramayana and Mahabharata, including the Bhagavad Gita, take shape over several centuries, according to most scholars.
- c. 4th to 6th century CEIn the Gupta period and after, stone temples spread and many Puranas are compiled.
- c. 6th to 9th century CEThe Tamil Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) sing devotional hymns, and the bhakti movement grows.
- c. 8th century CE (traditional dates vary)Adi Shankaracharya teaches Advaita Vedanta and, by tradition, establishes four mathas in the four directions of India.
- c. 11th to 13th century CESri Ramanujacharya teaches Vishishtadvaita and Sri Madhvacharya teaches Dvaita, giving Vaishnava devotion strong philosophical foundations.
- 1290 CESant Dnyaneshwar completes the Dnyaneshwari, a Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, at Nevasa; the Varkari tradition honours him as a founding saint.
- 16th to 17th century CEBhakti flourishes across India: Goswami Tulsidas writes the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi, Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu leads Krishna devotion in Bengal, and Sant Tukaram composes his abhangas in Maharashtra.
- 1893 CESwami Vivekananda speaks at the World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago, introducing Vedanta to a wide international audience.
Core teachings
Dharma
Hindus understand dharma as the order that sustains the world and as right conduct for each person. It includes universal virtues such as truthfulness and non-violence, as well as duties linked to one's stage of life and relationships.
Karma and rebirth
Hindus believe that every action has consequences that shape future experience, in this life and in future lives. The soul passes through a cycle of birth, death and rebirth called samsara.
Moksha
The highest goal for many Hindus is moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Traditions describe it differently: as realising the oneness of the self with Brahman, or as eternal loving union with God.
Brahman and Atman
The Upanishads teach of Brahman, the ultimate reality, and Atman, the inner self. Hindu schools differ on how the two are related, and many Hindus see the many deities as forms or aspects of the one divine.
Many paths (yogas)
The Bhagavad Gita and later teachers describe several paths to the divine: karma yoga (selfless action), bhakti yoga (loving devotion), jnana yoga (knowledge) and the path of meditation. Hindus often combine them according to temperament.
The four aims of life
Hindu texts describe four aims of human life (purusharthas): dharma (righteousness), artha (prosperity), kama (pleasure and love) and moksha (liberation). They teach that worldly goals are valid when pursued within dharma.
Ahimsa
Non-violence toward all living beings is a widely honoured Hindu value, found in texts such as the Yoga Sutras and the Mahabharata. It inspires vegetarianism among many Hindus and reverence for animals such as the cow.
Sacred books
📖 The Vedas
The four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva) are the oldest Hindu scriptures, regarded as shruti. Each contains hymns (samhitas) and later layers of ritual and philosophical texts.
Reader coming📖 The Upanishads
Philosophical texts that form the concluding part of the Vedas (Vedanta), exploring Brahman, Atman and liberation; the principal Upanishads include the Isha, Katha, Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka.
Reader coming📖 Bhagavad Gita ›
A dialogue of 700 verses in the Mahabharata, in which Sri Krishna guides Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra about duty, devotion, knowledge and the self. It is one of the most widely read Hindu scriptures.
Read now📖 Ramayana
The epic attributed to Maharshi Valmiki, telling the life of Sri Rama, Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman; it has been retold in nearly every Indian language and across Southeast Asia.
Reader coming📖 Mahabharata
The vast epic attributed to Maharshi Veda Vyasa, centred on the conflict between the Pandavas and Kauravas, and rich in teachings on dharma; the Bhagavad Gita is part of it.
Reader coming📖 The Puranas
Texts of stories, cosmology, genealogies and worship, traditionally counted as eighteen major Puranas, such as the Bhagavata, Vishnu, Shiva and Markandeya Puranas.
Reader coming📖 Ramcharitmanas
Goswami Tulsidas's 16th-century retelling of the Ramayana in Awadhi, beloved across north India and recited in homes and temples.
Reader comingKey figures
| Maharshi Veda Vyasa | Revered by tradition as the sage who arranged the Vedas and composed the Mahabharata; Guru Purnima is also called Vyasa Purnima in his honour. |
|---|---|
| Maharshi Valmiki | Honoured as the adi kavi, the first poet, and author of the Sanskrit Ramayana. |
| Adi Shankaracharya | Philosopher from Kalady in Kerala, the great teacher of Advaita Vedanta, who wrote commentaries on the Upanishads, the Gita and the Brahma Sutras. |
| Sri Ramanujacharya | Teacher of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta from Tamil Nadu, closely linked with Srirangam, who gave devotion to Vishnu a strong philosophical basis. |
| Sri Madhvacharya | Teacher of Dvaita Vedanta from the Udupi region of Karnataka, who taught the eternal distinction between God and souls. |
| Sant Dnyaneshwar | 13th-century saint-poet of Maharashtra, author of the Dnyaneshwari, revered as a founding figure of the Varkari tradition; his samadhi is at Alandi. |
| Sant Tukaram | 17th-century Varkari saint from Dehu whose Marathi abhangas in praise of Vitthal are sung across Maharashtra. |
| Swami Vivekananda | Disciple of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and founder of the Ramakrishna Mission (1897), who spoke at Chicago in 1893; his birthday is celebrated as National Youth Day. |
Schools and communities
Where traditions within this faith differ. Described side by side, with no verdict.
Vaishnava tradition
Worships Vishnu and his avatars, especially Sri Rama and Sri Krishna, often with Lakshmi. Devotion (bhakti) and surrender to God are central, and it includes many sampradayas such as the Sri Vaishnava, Madhva, Gaudiya and Pushti Marg traditions.
Shaiva tradition
Worships Shiva as the supreme reality, often in the form of the linga, together with Parvati and their sons Ganesha and Kartikeya. It includes Shaiva Siddhanta in Tamil Nadu, Kashmir Shaivism and the Lingayat (Veerashaiva) tradition of Karnataka.
Shakta tradition
Worships the Goddess, Devi or Shakti, as the supreme power, in forms such as Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, Saraswati and local mother goddesses. The Devi Mahatmya is a key text, and the Shakti Peethas are major pilgrimage centres.
Smarta tradition
Follows the smriti texts and, in the form linked with Adi Shankaracharya, worships five deities (panchayatana puja: Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Ganesha and Surya) as equal forms of the one Brahman, often within Advaita philosophy.
Vedanta schools: Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita
Vedanta is one of the six classical schools of Hindu philosophy. Advaita (Adi Shankaracharya) teaches that Atman and Brahman are one; Vishishtadvaita (Sri Ramanujacharya) teaches that souls and the world are real parts of God, like a body of the one Lord; Dvaita (Sri Madhvacharya) teaches that God and souls are eternally distinct.
Bhakti saints and the Varkari tradition
Across India, bhakti saints sang of personal devotion in local languages, from the Alvars and Nayanars to Meerabai, Surdas and Tulsidas. In Maharashtra the Varkari tradition worships Vitthal of Pandharpur through the abhangas of Sant Dnyaneshwar, Sant Namdev, Sant Eknath and Sant Tukaram, and through the walking pilgrimage called the wari.
Holy places
📍 Varanasi (Kashi)
On the Ganga, Uttar Pradesh
One of the holiest cities for Hindus, sacred to Shiva, with ghats where pilgrims bathe and pray; many Hindus wish for their last rites to be performed here.
📍 Prayagraj (Triveni Sangam)
Uttar Pradesh
The meeting point of the Ganga, the Yamuna and, by tradition, the unseen Saraswati; it hosts the Kumbh Mela, inscribed by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage.
📍 Char Dham
Badrinath (Uttarakhand), Dwarka (Gujarat), Puri (Odisha), Rameswaram (Tamil Nadu)
Four sacred abodes at the four corners of India, traditionally linked with Adi Shankaracharya; visiting all four is a lifelong hope for many Hindus.
📍 Pandharpur
Solapur district, Maharashtra
Home of the Vitthal Rukmini temple on the Chandrabhaga river; lakhs of Varkaris walk here in the wari to arrive for Ashadhi Ekadashi.
📍 Tirumala Venkateswara Temple
Tirupati district, Andhra Pradesh
A hill temple of Sri Venkateswara, a form of Vishnu, and one of the most visited pilgrimage places in the world.
📍 Kamakhya Temple
Nilachal Hill, Guwahati, Assam
One of the most important Shakti Peethas and a major centre of Shakta worship; the Ambubachi Mela draws large crowds each year.
📍 Pashupatinath Temple
Kathmandu, Nepal
A major Shiva temple on the Bagmati river, visited by pilgrims from India and Nepal, especially at Maha Shivaratri.
📍 Angkor Wat
Siem Reap, Cambodia
Built in the 12th century as a temple to Vishnu, it is among the largest religious monuments in the world and shows how Hindu traditions spread across Southeast Asia.
Festivals
- Diwali (Deepavali): The festival of lights in Kartika, celebrating the victory of light over darkness; many remember Sri Rama's return to Ayodhya and worship Lakshmi, with lamps, rangoli and sweets.
- Holi: The spring festival of colours on the full moon of Phalguna, preceded by the Holika bonfire that recalls the devotion of Prahlada.
- Navaratri, Durga Puja and Dussehra: Nine nights in honour of the Goddess in Ashvin, celebrated with garba in Gujarat, Durga Puja in Bengal and ghatasthapana in Maharashtra; the tenth day, Vijayadashami, marks the victory of good over evil.
- Ganesh Chaturthi: Celebrates Ganesha, remover of obstacles, in Bhadrapada; in Maharashtra homes and public mandals install Ganesha images for up to ten days before immersion on Anant Chaturdashi.
- Maha Shivaratri: The great night of Shiva in Phalguna (Magha in some calendars), kept with fasting, night-long vigil and offerings to the linga.
- Krishna Janmashtami: Celebrates the birth of Sri Krishna at midnight; in Maharashtra the next day is known for dahi handi, when teams form human pyramids to break a pot of curd.
- Makar Sankranti and Pongal: A mid-January harvest festival marking the sun's entry into Capricorn, known as Pongal in Tamil Nadu and Sankranti in Maharashtra, where people share til-gul and say 'tilgul ghya, god god bola'.
In India today
Hindu traditions take strikingly different shapes across India: Durga Puja in Bengal, temple festivals and classical arts in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the Jagannath Rath Yatra in Puri, and the Varkari wari to Pandharpur in Maharashtra. Regional languages carry their own sacred literature, from the Tamil hymns of the Alvars and Nayanars to the Marathi Dnyaneshwari, the Kannada vachanas and the Assamese devotion of Srimanta Sankardev. Village and family deities (kuladevata and gramadevata) sit alongside the great pan-Indian deities, and pilgrimages such as the Kumbh Mela and the Char Dham link communities across the country. Many reform and devotional movements of the 19th and 20th centuries, such as the Ramakrishna Mission and the Arya Samaj, also shaped modern Hindu life.
Visiting and learning with respect
- Remove your shoes before entering a temple or a home shrine; some temples also do not allow leather items inside.
- Dress modestly and follow posted temple rules; some temples have dress codes, and some allow only Hindus into the inner sanctum.
- Accept prasad and offerings with your right hand, and do not point your feet toward a deity or a sacred book.
- Walk around a shrine clockwise (pradakshina), and ask before photographing images of deities, as many temples do not permit it.
Test what you learned
What does 'shruti', the category to which the Vedas belong, mean?
The Bhagavad Gita is part of which epic?
Which Vedanta school, taught by Adi Shankaracharya, holds that Atman and Brahman are one?
Which deity is worshipped at Pandharpur by the Varkari tradition?
Who wrote the Dnyaneshwari, a Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita?
Which of these is NOT one of the four aims of life (purusharthas)?
Score: 0 / 6
Sources: Census of India 2011, religion data (Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India) · Encyclopaedia Britannica: Hinduism · Encyclopaedia Britannica: Veda · Encyclopaedia Britannica: Vedanta · Encyclopaedia Britannica: Bhagavadgita
Corrections from members of every tradition are welcome at support@indiadigital.org. Last checked: .