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Jainism
Ahimsa, many-sidedness and the path of the Tirthankaras
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In one minute
Jainism, Jain dharma, is one of the oldest living religious traditions of India. Jains believe every living being has a soul (jiva) that is bound by karma, and that the soul can free itself and reach liberation (moksha) through right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. This path was taught, in Jain belief, by 24 Tirthankaras ("ford-makers" who show the way across the river of rebirth) in our present age, from Rishabhanatha, the first, to Mahavira, the twenty-fourth. Non-violence (ahimsa) towards every form of life, many-sidedness of truth (anekantavada) and non-possessiveness (aparigraha) shape Jain daily life.
In India (Census 2011): 44.5 lakh (0.4%)
Origins
As the tradition tells it
Jains believe that the universe has no beginning and no creator, and that time turns in endless cycles of rising and falling ages. In each half-cycle 24 Tirthankaras are born, conquer all inner passions, attain omniscience (kevala jnana) and teach the eternal path anew. In the present age Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), the first Tirthankara, is remembered as the one who taught people farming, crafts and the ways of an ordered society before he renounced the world. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth, was born as Prince Vardhamana, left home at about thirty, practised deep austerity for about twelve years, attained omniscience and taught until his nirvana at Pavapuri.
As historians describe it
Historians see Jainism as one of the shramana (ascetic) traditions that flourished in the Ganga plain in the middle of the first millennium BCE. Mahavira is regarded as a historical teacher and a contemporary of the Buddha; the traditional Svetambara dates are 599 to 527 BCE, while many scholars place him somewhat later, in the 5th century BCE. Many historians also accept Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, as a historical teacher who lived before Mahavira, and early texts mention followers of Parshva meeting followers of Mahavira. The division into Digambara and Svetambara communities developed over several centuries and was clearly established by the early centuries CE, and the Svetambara scriptures were written down at a council at Valabhi in the 5th century CE.
Timeline
- Jain tradition: the far distant pastRishabhanatha (Adinatha), the first Tirthankara of the present age, teaches the path of liberation. Jain tradition places him in an age immeasurably long ago.
- 8th century BCE (traditional dating)Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, teaches at Varanasi and beyond; Jain tradition places him about 250 years before Mahavira.
- 599 to 527 BCE (traditional); 5th century BCE (many scholars)Life of Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, born near Vaishali in present-day Bihar, who attains nirvana at Pavapuri.
- c. 4th to 3rd century BCEJain tradition remembers Acharya Bhadrabahu leading monks south to Shravanabelagola during a long famine; Digambara accounts say the emperor Chandragupta Maurya came with him as a monk.
- c. 1st century BCEKing Kharavela of Kalinga records his support for Jain monks in the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri, near Bhubaneswar.
- c. 1st to 5th century CEJain images and inscriptions flourish at Mathura; Acharya Kundakunda writes his works, and Umasvati composes the Tattvartha Sutra, later accepted by both Digambaras and Svetambaras.
- 5th century CEA council at Valabhi in Gujarat, led by Devarddhi Gani Kshamashramana, writes down the Svetambara Agamas.
- c. 981 CEThe great statue of Bahubali (Gommateshwara) is carved at Shravanabelagola under the minister Chavundaraya.
- 11th to 12th century CEThe marble Vimal Vasahi temple is built at Dilwara, Mount Abu (1031 CE), and the scholar monk Acharya Hemachandra writes on grammar, poetry and Jain teaching in Gujarat.
- 15th century CEThe Chaumukha temple of Adinatha is built at Ranakpur, and Lonka Shah questions image worship, a line of thought from which the Sthanakvasi tradition later grows.
- 1760 CEAcharya Bhikshu founds the Svetambara Terapanth in Rajasthan, which is still led by a single acharya.
Core teachings
The three jewels (ratnatraya)
Jains believe liberation comes through three jewels practised together: right faith (samyak darshana), right knowledge (samyak jnana) and right conduct (samyak charitra).
Ahimsa (non-violence)
Ahimsa is the first and greatest vow. Jains try not to harm any living being, even the smallest, in thought, word or deed, which shapes their vegetarian diet, careful movement and choice of work.
Anekantavada (many-sidedness)
Jain teaching holds that reality has many aspects and no single viewpoint grasps it fully. Its method of qualified statements (syadvada) encourages humility and respect for other views; the story of the blind men and the elephant is often used to explain it.
Aparigraha (non-possessiveness)
Jains believe attachment to possessions and people binds the soul. Monks and nuns give up all property; lay Jains set limits on what they own and give generously.
Soul, karma and liberation
In Jain belief karma is a fine kind of matter that sticks to the soul through passions such as anger, pride, deceit and greed. Through restraint and austerity the soul stops new karma and sheds the old, until, freed, it rises to the top of the universe (Siddhashila) in endless knowledge and bliss.
Five vows
Jains keep five vows: non-violence, truthfulness, not stealing, chastity and non-possessiveness. Monks and nuns take them in full as great vows (mahavratas); lay people keep them in a lighter form as small vows (anuvratas).
No creator god; the Navkar Mantra
Jains do not believe in a creator god. They honour the Tirthankaras and all liberated souls as ideals to follow, not as beings who grant favours. The Navkar (Namokar) Mantra bows to the five supreme beings: the arihants, siddhas, acharyas, upadhyayas and all sadhus.
Sacred books
📖 The Agamas
The scriptures based on Mahavira's teaching as passed down by his disciples, in the Ardhamagadhi Prakrit language. Svetambara Murtipujakas preserve about 45 Agamas, including the 11 Angas; Sthanakvasis and Terapanthis accept 32. Digambaras hold that the original Agamas were lost over time.
Reader coming📖 Tattvartha Sutra ›
A short Sanskrit text in ten chapters by Umasvati (called Umaswami by Digambaras), summing up Jain teaching on the soul, karma and liberation. It is accepted by both Digambaras and Svetambaras.
Read now📖 Kalpa Sutra
A Svetambara text, traditionally attributed to Bhadrabahu, telling the lives of the Tirthankaras, especially Mahavira. It is read aloud by Svetambara monks during Paryushan, and many illustrated manuscripts survive.
Reader coming📖 Shatkhandagama
"Scripture in six parts", one of the oldest Digambara texts, on karma and the soul, composed by Acharyas Pushpadanta and Bhutabali. Digambaras honour it, with the Kasayapahuda, as scripture preserved from the lost canon.
Reader coming📖 Samayasara
A Prakrit work by Acharya Kundakunda on the true nature of the soul, much studied in the Digambara tradition.
Reader comingKey figures
| Bhagwan Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) | The first Tirthankara of the present age, whose symbol is the bull. Remembered as the teacher of farming and the arts of civilised life. |
|---|---|
| Bahubali (Gommateshwara) | Son of Rishabhanatha who, in Jain tradition, gave up a kingdom and stood in meditation so long that vines grew around him. Honoured at Shravanabelagola. |
| Bhagwan Neminatha | The twenty-second Tirthankara. Jains remember that he renounced the world on his wedding day on seeing animals penned for the feast; his nirvana is linked with Girnar. |
| Bhagwan Parshvanatha | The twenty-third Tirthankara, often shown sheltered by a many-headed serpent. Jains hold that he attained nirvana at Sammed Shikhar, also called Parasnath Hill. |
| Bhagwan Mahavira (Vardhamana) | The twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara of this age, whose symbol is the lion. His teaching forms the basis of the Jain community and scriptures today. |
| Gautama Swami (Indrabhuti Gautama) | Chief disciple (ganadhara) of Mahavira, who in Jain tradition attained omniscience on the night of Mahavira's nirvana. |
| Acharya Bhadrabahu | A revered teacher of early Jainism, remembered for leading monks to the south during a famine and, by Svetambaras, as the author of the Kalpa Sutra. |
| Acharya Kundakunda | A great Digambara teacher from South India, author of Samayasara and other works on the soul; Digambaras name him in their blessings right after Mahavira and Gautama. |
| Acharya Umasvati (Umaswami) | Author of the Tattvartha Sutra, the one summary of Jain teaching accepted by both Digambaras and Svetambaras. |
| Acharya Hemachandra | A Svetambara scholar monk of 12th century Gujarat who wrote on grammar, poetry, lexicons and the lives of Jain teachers, and advised King Kumarapala. |
Schools and communities
Where traditions within this faith differ. Described side by side, with no verdict.
Digambara
"Sky-clad": fully initiated Digambara monks wear no clothes, as a sign of complete non-possession, and eat once a day from their hands. Digambaras hold that the original Agamas were lost and rely on texts such as the Shatkhandagama and the works of Kundakunda. Sub-traditions include the Bispanthi and the Digambara Terapanthi, who differ on temple rituals.
Svetambara Murtipujaka
"White-clad": monks and nuns wear white robes and carry alms bowls. Svetambaras preserve about 45 Agamas, worship images of the Tirthankaras in temples, and hold, unlike Digambaras, that women can attain liberation and that the nineteenth Tirthankara, Mallinatha, was a woman.
Sthanakvasi
A Svetambara tradition that does not worship images. Members meet in simple halls (sthanaks), accept 32 Agamas, and their monks and nuns wear a cloth over the mouth (muhpatti) to protect tiny living beings.
Svetambara Terapanth
Founded by Acharya Bhikshu in 1760, also non-image-worshipping and accepting 32 Agamas. It is organised under a single acharya, and in the 20th century Acharya Tulsi began the Anuvrat movement of small vows for everyone.
Holy places
📍 Shatrunjaya Hill, Palitana
Bhavnagar district, Gujarat
A hill crowned with hundreds of temples, the most sacred pilgrimage for Svetambaras, linked above all with Rishabhanatha. Pilgrims climb thousands of steps, and no one stays on the hill overnight.
📍 Shravanabelagola
Hassan district, Karnataka
Home of the monolithic statue of Bahubali, about 17 metres (57 feet) tall, anointed in the grand Mahamastakabhisheka about every twelve years. A major Digambara centre since ancient times.
📍 Sammed Shikhar (Parasnath Hill)
Giridih district, Jharkhand
Jains believe twenty of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, including Parshvanatha, attained nirvana on this hill, making it one of the holiest places for both Digambaras and Svetambaras.
📍 Girnar
Junagadh, Gujarat
A mountain with ancient temples, sacred to Jains as the place of Neminatha's renunciation and nirvana. It is also holy to Hindus.
📍 Pavapuri
Nalanda district, Bihar
Where Mahavira attained nirvana. The white marble Jal Mandir stands in the middle of a lotus pond.
📍 Dilwara Temples
Mount Abu, Rajasthan
A group of marble temples built from the 11th to the 13th century, famous for their extremely fine carving.
📍 Ranakpur Temple
Pali district, Rajasthan
A 15th century four-faced (chaumukha) temple of Adinatha, known for its forest of carved marble pillars, no two alike.
Festivals
- Mahavir Jayanti: The birth of Mahavira, on the thirteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra (March or April), marked with temple worship, processions, charity and talks on his teaching.
- Paryushan and Das Lakshan: The most important Jain observance, in the monsoon month of Bhadrapada (August or September): eight days of fasting, study and reflection for Svetambaras, who hear the Kalpa Sutra, and ten days (Das Lakshan Parva) for Digambaras, each day devoted to one virtue such as forgiveness or humility.
- Samvatsari and Kshamavani: The day of asking forgiveness at the end of Paryushan. Jains say "Micchami Dukkadam", asking pardon for any harm done knowingly or unknowingly during the year.
- Diwali (Mahavira Nirvana): Jains celebrate Diwali as the night of Mahavira's nirvana at Pavapuri, lighting lamps as a sign of the light of knowledge. For many Jains the next day begins the new year.
- Akshaya Tritiya: Jains remember Rishabhanatha ending a long fast with sugarcane juice offered by King Shreyans. Those who complete the year-long varshitap fast break it on this day, many at Palitana or Hastinapur.
- Kartik Purnima: After the monsoon months, when the Shatrunjaya hill at Palitana is closed to pilgrims, it reopens and large numbers of Jains make the yatra.
In India today
The 2011 Census counted about 44.5 lakh Jains, around 0.4% of India's population, with the largest numbers in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Jain communities have a long history in trade, banking and publishing, and are known for philanthropy, including schools, hospitals and animal shelters (panjrapoles). Jain patrons built some of India's finest temples, and manuscript libraries (gyan bhandars) at places such as Patan and Jaisalmer preserve old texts on many subjects. Jain monks and poets also contributed richly to literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil, Gujarati and other languages.
Visiting and learning with respect
- Remove shoes, and in many Jain temples also leather items such as belts and wallets, before entering. Do not take food or drink inside.
- Do not touch the images of the Tirthankaras; in many temples only worshippers who have bathed and wear puja clothes may do so.
- Greet Jain monks and nuns with folded hands. They do not use money or vehicles, and they accept food only under strict rules, so ask a lay Jain before offering anything.
- When hosting Jain guests, ask about food. Many avoid not only meat, fish and eggs but also honey and root vegetables such as onion, garlic and potato, and some do not eat after sunset.
Test what you learned
Who is the twenty-fourth Tirthankara of the present age?
Where is the great statue of Bahubali (Gommateshwara)?
What does anekantavada mean?
What are the three jewels of Jainism?
Which text is accepted by both Digambaras and Svetambaras?
Where did Mahavira attain nirvana?
Score: 0 / 6
Sources: Census of India 2011, religion data (Office of the Registrar General) · Encyclopaedia Britannica: Jainism · Encyclopaedia Britannica: Mahavira · Encyclopaedia Britannica: Tirthankara
Corrections from members of every tradition are welcome at support@indiadigital.org. Last checked: .